History of english language реферат

Обновлено: 02.07.2024

especially at the morphological level. Like finite forms they could take direct objects and be modified by adverbs. Infinitive had no verbal grammatical categories. Being a verbal noun by origin, it had a sort of reduced case-system: two forms which roughly corresponded to the Nom. And the Dat. Cases of nouns. Like the Dat. Case of nouns the inflected Infinitive with the preposition to could be used to indicate the direction or purpose of an action. The uninflected Infinitive was used in verb phrases with modal verbs or other verbs of incomplete predication. The Participle was a kind of verbal adjective which was characterized not only by nominal nut also by certain verbal features. Participle 1 was opposed to Participle 2 through voice and tense distinctions: it was active and expressed present or simultaneous processes and qualities, while

P2 expressed states and qualities resulting from past action and was contrasted to P1 as passive to active, if the verb was transitive. P2 of intransitive had an active meaning. Participles were employed predicatively and attributively like adjectives and shared their grammatical categories: they were declined as weak and strong and agreed with nouns in number, gender and case. ME. The development of analytical forms and new grammatical categories has transformed the verbals. Compound forms of the Infinitive appeared (passive Inf, perfect Inf, cont and perf cont). Part 1 perf, non-perf, pass and active. Compound forms of the ing form used in the functions of a noun, that is the Gerund, were the last to appear.

23. The rise of analytical forms in the verbal system in ME

The development of analytical forms and new grammatical categories has transformed not only the finite verb but also the verbals.

24. The infinitive in the history of English

In many respects it was closer to the nouns and adjectives than to the finite verb: its nominal features were far more obvious than their verbal features, especially at the morphological level. Like finite forms it could take direct objects and be modified by adverbs. Infinitive had no verbal grammatical categories. Being a verbal noun by origin, it had a sort of reduced case-system: two forms which roughly corresponded to the Nom. And the Dat. Cases of nouns. Like the Dat. Case of nouns the inflected Infinitive with the preposition to could be used to indicate the direction or purpose of an action. The uninflected Infinitive was used in verb phrases with modal verbs or other verbs of incomplete predication. The development of analytical forms and new grammatical categories has transformed the verbals. In ME texts we find different types of compound Inf: the Pass Inf, the Perf Inf in the Active and Pass forms. Evidently in the 17th c the Inf had the same set of forms as it has in present-day English.

25. The Participle in OE and its further development

In OE there were two non-finite forms of the verb: the Infinitive and the Participle. In many respects it was closer to the nouns and adjectives than to the finite verb: its nominal features were far more obvious than their verbal features, especially at the morphological level. Like finite forms it could take direct objects and be modified by adverbs. The Participle was a kind of verbal adjective which was characterized not only by nominal nut also by certain verbal features. Participle 1 was opposed to Participle 2 through voice and tense distinctions: it was active and expressed present or simultaneous processes and qualities, while

P2 expressed states and qualities resulting from past action and was contrasted to P1 as passive to active, if the verb was transitive. P2 of intransitive had an active meaning; it indicate a past action and was opposed to P1 only through tense. P! was fprmed from the Present tense stem with the help of the suffix – ende. P2 had a stem of its own – in strong verbs it was marked by a certain grade of the root-vowel interchange and by the suffix – en; with the weak verbs it ended in d/t. P2 was commonly marked by the suffix – Ze. Participles were employed predicatively and attributively like adjectives and shared their grammatical categories: they were declined as weak and strong and agreed with nouns in number, gender and case. ME Part 1 perf, non-perf, pass and active.

26. The rise of the Gerund in English

The Late ME period witnessed the growth of a new verbal known in modern grammars as the Gerund. The Gerund can be traced to three sources: the OE verbal noun in – unZ and inZ, thePresent Participle and the Infinitive. In ME the Present Participle and the verbal noun became identical: they both ended in – ing. This led to the confusion of some of their features: verbal nouns began to take direct objects, like participles and Infinitives. This verbal feature – a direct object – as well as the frequent absence of article before the – ing form functioning as a noun – transformed the verbal noun into a Gerund in the modern understanding of the term. The dissappearence of the inflected infinitive contributed to the change, as some of its functions were taken over by the Gerund. The earliest instances of a verbal noun resembling a Gerund date from 12th c. Chaucer uses the – ing – form in substantival functions in object. In Early NE the – ing form in the function of a noun is commonly used with an adverbial modifier and with a direct object – in case of transitive verbs. The nominal features, retained from the verbal noun, were its syntactic functions and the ability to be modified by a possessive pronoun or a noun in the G.case. In the course of time the sphere of the usage of the Gerund grew: it replaced the Infinitive and the Participle in many adverbial functions; its great advantage was that it could be used with various prepositions.

27. Causes of changes in the morphological system in ME and NE

The main direction of development for the nominal parts of speech in all the periods of history can be defined as morphological simplification. Simplifying changes began in prehistoric, PG times. They continued at a slow rate during the OE period and were intensified in Early ME. The period between c. 1000 and 1300 has been called an age of Great changes, for it witnessed one of the greatest events in the History of English grammar: the decline and transformation of the nominal morphological system. Some nominal categories were lost – Gender and Case in adjectives, Gender in nouns; the number of forms distinguished in the surviving categorie was reduced – cases in nouns and noun-pronouns, numbers in personal pronouns. Morphological division into types of Declension practically disappeared. In Late ME the adjective lost the last vestigates of the old paradigm: the distinction of number and the distinction of weak and strong forms.

28. Agreement in the History of English

In Old E we find a variety of word phrases. A noun pattern consisted of a noun as the head word and pronouns, adjectives (including verbal adjectives, or participles), numerals and other nouns as determiners and attributes. Most noun modifiers agreed with the noun in gender, number and case. Nouns which served as attributes to other nouns usually had the form of the Gen. case: hwales ban (whale’s bone). Some numerals governed the nouns they modified so that formally the relations were reversed. An adjective pattern could include adverbs, nouns or pronouns in one of the oblique cases with or without prepositions. Verb patterns included a great variety of dependant components: nouns and pronouns in oblique cases with or without prepositions, adverbs, infinitives and participles. Infinitives and participles were often used in verb phrases with verbs of incomplete predication. By Late ME agreement in noun patterns had practically disappeared, except for some instances of agreement in number. Formal markers of number had been preserved in nouns, demonstrative pronouns and some survivals of the strong declension of adjectives. The last traces of agreement in adjectives were lost in the 15th c. when the inflection – e was dropped; only the demonstrative pronouns, the indefinite article and nouns in apposition indicated the number of the head word, like in Mod E. When the adjective had lost its forms of agreement, its relationship with the noun were shown by its position.

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Представлен реферат по английскому языку на тему Английский язык/ English Language с переводом читать бесплатно.

Английский язык в настоящее время является наиболее широко используемым языком в мире. Он принадлежит к германской группе языков, и используется на шести континентах. К странам, которые говорят на английском, как на родном языке, относятся Великобритания, США, Канада, Австралия, Новая Зеландия и многие другие суверенные государства. Это официальный язык ряда мировых организаций, в том числе и Европейского Союза. Невозможно отрицать важность этого языка в политике, бизнесе, медицине, инженерии, технологиях, образовании, туризме и почти во всех областях. Сегодня знание английского языка практически обязательное требование к тем, кто хочет найти хорошую работу. Таким образом, английский постепенно превратился в международный язык мирового значения.

English is the most widely used language in the world nowadays. As a part of Germanic languages, it is now spoken on six continents. Countries, which use English as a first language, include Great Britain, the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and many other sovereign states. It is the official language of a number of world organizations, including the European Union. The importance of this language can’t be denied in politics, business, medicine, engineering, technology, education, travel and nearly in all fields. Today, knowledge of English is almost obligatory if one wants to find a good job. Thus, English has gradually become an international language with global significance.

The history of the English language dates back to the times when Britain was invaded by Germanic tribes. One of those tribes was called the Angles and that served as the origin of the word “English”. Old English was also known as the Anglo-Saxon language. The second stage of development began in the 12th century and continued till the end of the 15th. It was called Middle English era. At that time the language was largely influenced by French and Latin words. Modern English era began in the 16th century and continues up to present days. With the industrial growth and invention of new machines many new words and phrases have entered the English language. Written English has been based on the Latin script since the 9th century. Generally speaking, Latin alphabet has replaced Anglo-Saxon runes. The modern English alphabet has 26 letters in total.

Today, English has various dialects. For example, after the colonization of the USA, a new distinct type of English was born – American English. This dialect is rather popular in the world because of its dominance in the fields of cinema, music, technology. Many American words are completely different from those used in England. For example, in England people say “autumn”, while in the USA they say “fall”. Australian English has a distinctive dialect and accent as well. Many English words today have become international, for example “football”, “computer”, “hamburger”, “telephone”, “college”, “bank”, etc. It made the course of learning much easier. Moreover, a growing number of English-language schools with qualified native speakers turned language learning into an exciting process.

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Английский язык

English Language

Про существования английского языка знают все, а многим даже знакомы отдельные английские фразы и слова, даже если они никогда его не учили. Например, “hello” и “thank you”. Он уже давно стал языком международного общения, но мало кто знает, какая вековая история стоит за английским, который мы учим сегодня. В нашей статье мы поговорим, откуда произошел английский и что сделало его таким, какой он есть.

Начало начал: кельтский и англосаксонский. Появление древнеанглийского (450–1100 гг. нашей эры)

История английского языка напрямую связана с историей Британских островов. Изначально их населяли кельты, но кельтский язык претерпел существенные изменения, когда острова стали Римской провинцией. Например, множество латинских корней перешло в кельтский и осталось в географических названиях нынешней Великобритании (Lancaster, Manchester, London, Avon). Но это было только началом.

В V веке к берегам Британии со стороны Северного моря, из нынешней Дании и северной Германии приплыли германские завоеватели – англы, саксы и юты. Эти племена говорили на очень схожих языках, и в результате так называемый англосаксонский язык (общий диалект германов) вытеснил кельтский и латинский. Они остались в употреблении только в Шотландии, Уэльсе и Корнуолле, а им на смену пришел древнеанглийский (Old English) – прародитель современного английского.

Англы называли свою страну “Englaland”, а свой язык – “Englisc”. Напоминает England и English, неправда ли? Из англосаксонского наречия в язык также вошли, например, слова “дом” (house), “еда” (food), “земля” (earth). Как видишь, даже сегодня следы староанглийского частично сохранились в современном языке.

Вторжение норманнов и появление среднеанглийского (1100–1500)

В 1066 году произошло нормандское вторжение, и на берегах Британии высадился Вильгельм Завоеватель, герцог Нормандии. Язык завоевателей был французский, и он же стал основным языком высшего общества, королевского двора, знати и торгового сословия.

Годы правления норманнов стали временем языкового социального расслоения, то есть низшие слои использовали в речи английский, а высшие – французский. Это продолжалось до XIV века, пока английский снова не начал распространяться, вобрав в себя большое количество французских слов и превратившись в среднеанглийский язык.

Заимствования происходили в первую очередь для того, чтобы лучше понимать новых правителей. Но часто это случалось еще и потому, что французский стал модным, а говорить на нем было признаком знатности и успеха. Так многие французские (и другие иностранные) слова стали синонимами для уже существующих английских слов.

Например, английское “child” и французское “infant” (ребенок) или английское “freedom” и французское “liberty” (свобода). Именно поэтому английские словари такие толстые! В языке невероятно много заимствований, некоторые из которых стали даже популярнее исконно английских оригиналов. Так было, к примеру, с “divide” (разделять) и “cleave”.

Стандартизация языка и ранненовоанглийский (1500–1800)

В конце XIV в английском языке произошло масштабное событие – Великий сдвиг гласных. Это фонетическое изменение привело к тому, что долгие гласные звуки стали более краткими и произношение многих слов существенно поменялось.

Особое влияние оказала и эпоха Возрождения. Она принесла множество новых слов, которые тут же вошли в язык. Моряки, ученые и художники путешествовали по Европе и уезжали за ее пределы, а возвращаясь назад, привозили с собой новые, ранее не существовавшие в английском названия: chocolate (шоколад), tomatoes (помидоры), apricots (абрикосы), violin (скрипка), volcano (вулкан) и др.

Изобретение печатного станка также повлияло на язык. Это историческое событие привело к стремительному подъему и развитию английского литературного языка. Так, самый известный поэт, писавший на ранненовоанглийском был не кто иной, как Шекспир!

Книги становились все дешевле и доступнее, а жители Британских островов – все более грамотными. Правила грамматики и орфографии теперь появились в печатном виде в учебниках по английскому. А в 1604 году был издан самый первый словарь английского языка.

Промышленная революция и поздненовоанглийский (1800–наше время)

В результате промышленной революции в английском появилось еще больше новой лексики, необходимой для общения в мире технологий. Источником новых слов стала и колонизированная Северная Америка. Там возник обособленный вариант американского английского, слова из которого вошли и в речь жителей Британских островов. Некоторые слова и особенности произношения так и остались в языке до сих пор. Так что можно сказать, что американский английский сегодня даже больше похож на ранненовоанглийский, чем его современный британский собрат.

Сегодня английский – это множество диалектов, акцентов и десятки стран. Это международный язык общения , язык кино , книг , торговли и технологий . В этой статье нам удалось слегка прикоснуться к его многовековой истории и попробовать понять, почему он такой разный, многогранный и интересный!

Надеемся, вы узнали для себя много нового. (Мы, пока писали, точно узнали!)

Пусть английский дается вам легко, а мы постараемся в этом помочь.

Удачи!

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