Stylistic classification of the english vocabulary реферат

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The word-stock of any language may be represented as a definite system in which different aspects of words may be singled out as interdependent. Aspect- the most typical characteristic of a word.

The word-stock of any given language can be roughly divided into three uneven groups, differing from each other by the sphere of its possible use. The biggest layer of the English word-stock is made up of neutral words, possessing no stylistic connotation and suitable for any communicative situation, two smaller ones are and colloquial strata respectively.

Literary words serve to satisfy communicative demands of official, scientific, poetic messages, while the colloquial ones are employed in non-official everyday communication. Though there is no immediate correlation between the written and the oral forms of speech on the one hand, and the literary and colloquial words, on the other, yet, for the most part, the first ones are mainly observed in the written form, as most literary messages appear in writing. And vice versa: though there are many examples of colloquialisms in writing (informal letters, diaries), their usage is associated with the oral form of communication. Consequently, taking for analysis printed materials we shall find literary words in authorial speech, descriptions, considerations, while colloquialisms will be observed in the types of discourse, simulating (copying) everyday oral communication-i.e., in the dialogue (or interior monologue) of a prose work.

When we classify some speech (text) fragment as literary or colloquial it does not mean that all the words constituting it have a corresponding stylistic meaning. More than that: words with a pronounced stylistic connotation are few in any type of discourse, the overwhelming majority of its lexis being neutral. As our famous philologist L.V. Shcherba once said- a stylistically coloured word is like a drop of paint added to a glass of pure water and colouring the whole of it.

The literary and the colloquial layers contain a number of subgroups each of which has a property it shares with all the subgroups within the layer. This common property, which unites the different groups of words within the layer, may be called its aspect. The aspect of the literary layer is its markedly bookish character. It is this that makes the layer more or less stable. The aspect of the colloquial layer of words is its lively-spoken character. It is this that makes it unstable, fleeting. The aspect of the neutral layer is its universal character. That means it is unrestricted in its use. It can be employed in all styles of language and in all spheres of human activity. It is this that makes the layer the most stable of all.

The literary layer of words consists of groups accepted as legitimate members of the English vocabulary. They have no local or dialectal character.

The colloquial layer of words as qualified in most English or American dictionaries is not infrequently limited to a definite language community or confined to a special locality where it circulates.

Each of the two named groups of words, possessing a stylistic meaning (literary and colloquial), is not homogeneous as to the quality of the meaning, frequency of use, sphere of application, or the number and character of potential users. This is why each one is further divided into the common (general), i.e. known to and used by native speakers in generalized literary (formal) or colloquial (informal) communication, and special bulks. The latter ones, in their turn, are subdivided into subgroups, each one serving a rather narrow, specified communicative purpose.

The literary vocabulary consists of the following groups of words:

1. common literary; 2. terms and learned words; 3. poetic words; 4. archaic words; 5. barbarisms and foreign words; 6. literary coinages including nonce-words.

The colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups: 1. common colloquial words; 2. slang; 3. jargonisms; 4. professional words; 5. dialectal words; 6. vulgar words; 7. colloquial coinages.

The common literary, neutral and common colloquial words are grouped under the term standard English vocabulary. Other groups in the literary layer are regarded as special literary vocabulary and those in the colloquial layer are regarded as special colloquial (non-literary) vocabulary.

Unlike all other groups, the neutral group of words cannot be considered as having a special stylistic colouring, whereas both literary and colloquial words have a definite stylistic colouring.

Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech.

The following synonyms illustrate the relations that exist between the neutral, literary and colloquial words in the English language: kid-child-infant, daddy-father-parent, chap-fellow-associate, go on, continue, proceed.

These synonyms are not only stylistic but ideographic as well, i.e. there is a definite, though slight, semantic difference between the words. But this is almost always the case with synonyms. There are very few absolute synonyms in English just as there are in any language. The main distinction between synonyms remains stylistic. But stylistic difference may be of various kinds: it may lie in the emotional colouring of a word, or in the sphere of application, or in the degree of the quality denoted. Colloquial words are always more emotionally coloured than literary ones. The neutral stratum of words, as the term itself implies, has no degree of emotiveness, nor have they any distinctions in the sphere of usage.

Both literary and colloquial words have their upper and lower ranges. The lower range of literary words approaches the neutral layer and has a markedly obvious tendency to pass into that layer. The same may be said of the upper range of the colloquial layer: it can very easily pass into the neutral layer. The borderlines between common colloquial and neutral, on the one hand, and common literary and neutral, on the other, are blurred.

Common colloquial vocabulary overlaps into the standard English vocabulary and is therefore to be considered part of it. It borders both on the neutral vocabulary and on the special colloquial vocabulary. Both common literary and common colloquial words are not homogenious. Some of them are closer to the non-standard groups while other words approach the neutral bulk of the vocabulary.

1) a special effort to finish a job or to deal with a problem quickly and thoroughly:

blitz on: It's time we had a blitz on the paperwork.

2) a sudden military attack

The stylistic function of the different strata of the English vocabulary depends mostly on their interaction when they are opposed to one another.

2.Special literary vocabulary

Literary words, both general (also called learned, bookish, high-flown) and special, contribute to the message the tone of solemnity, sophistication, seriousness, gravity, learnedness. They are used in official papers and documents, in scientific communication, in high poetry, in authorial speech of creative prose.

Termsi.e. words denoting objects, processes, phenomena of science, humanities, technique.

The most essential characteristics of a term are the follow:

1) its highly conventional character. A term is generally very easily coined and easily accepted; and new coinages as easily replace out-dated ones.

2) its direct relevance to the system or set of terms used in a particular science, discipline or art, i. e. to its nomenclature. When a term is used our mind immediately associates it with a certain nomenclature. A term is directly connected with the concept it denotes. A term, unlike other words, directs the mind to the essential quality of the thing, phenomenon or action.

Terms are mostly and predominantly used in special works dealing with the notions of some branch of science. Therefore it may be said that they belong to the style of language of science. But their use is not confined to this style. They may as well appear in other styles—in newspaper style, in publicistic and practically in all other existing styles of language. But their function in this case changes. They do not always fulfill their basic function, that of bearing exact reference to a given concept. When used in the belles-lettres style, for instance a term may acquire a stylistic function and consequently become a (sporadical – единичный)
SD. This happens when a term is used in such a way that two meanings are materialized simultaneously.

The function of terms, if encountered in other styles, is either to indicate the technical peculiarities of the subject dealt with, or to make some reference to the occupation of a character whose language would naturally contain special words and expressions, to create the environment of a special atmosphere.

Moreover, such an accumulation of special terminology often suggests that the author is displaying his erudition. Maxim Gorki said that terms must not be overused. It has been pointed out that those who are learning use far more complicated terms than those who have already learned. But when terms are used in their normal function as terms in a work of belles-lettres, they are or ought to be easily understood from the context so that the desired effect in depicting the situation will be secured. Whenever the terms used in the belles-lettres style set the reader at odds with the text, we can register a stylistic effect caused either by a specific use of terms in their proper meanings or by a simultaneous realization of two meanings.

With the increase of general education and the expansion of technique many words that were once terms have gradually lost their quality as terms and have passed into the common literary or even neutral vocabulary. This process may be called "de-terminization". Such words as 'radio', 'television' and the like have long been in common use and their terminological character is no longer evident.

Папиллярные узоры пальцев рук - маркер спортивных способностей: дерматоглифические признаки формируются на 3-5 месяце беременности, не изменяются в течение жизни.

Организация стока поверхностных вод: Наибольшее количество влаги на земном шаре испаряется с поверхности морей и океанов (88‰).

Общие условия выбора системы дренажа: Система дренажа выбирается в зависимости от характера защищаемого.

People who are far from that profession may not understand this jargon. For example: grease (money), loaf (head).Many of jargon words are based on the use of the transferred meanings of words. For example. He was a great gas. (talked too much without saying anything useful or interesting.)

Professional words are words which are used in certain sphere of human activity but these words name this profession indirectly. For example: a tin-fish (submarine), right-hander(upright).

The function of professionalisms may be different: to characterize the speech of a person, to make the description more precise and realistic. For example: heart man (a cardiologist), red ink (blood).

Dialectal words are such words which are connected with a certain area or region. For example: a lass (a girl or a beloved), fash (trouble). All these belong to Scottish dialect. Examples of southern dialect: volk (folk), yound (found). Irish words: eejts (idiots), colleen (a girl).It’s quite natural that dialectal words are commonly used in oral speech and emotive prose and always perform the function of charactering a person, his breeding and education through his speech.

Vulgar words perform the function of interjections and speech characterization. For example: smeller (a nose), old bean (a familiar form of address), nigger (a black)

Bibliography

V.A. Kukharenko. Seminar in style. M. 1971

I.V. Arnold. The English Word. M. 1973.

The World Book Encyclopedia. USA. 1994. №. G.G. Volume p/ 905/

Азнаурова Э.С. Очерки по стилистике слова. Ташкент, 3973. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика современного английского язька. Л., 1973.

Арутюноеа Н.Д. О синтаксических типах художественной прозы. – В сб: Общее и романское языкознание. М., Изд. МГУ, 1972.

1 Ullman, Stephen, words and their use. Frederick Muller, Ldn. 1951. P. 107

2 Uerhaar, John W. M. Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress of linguists. The Hague. 1966 p. 378

3 Foster, Brain. The changing English language. Penguin Books 1971 p. 12

5 Barfield, Owen. Poetic Diction.. Ldn. 1952, 2d ed. (Cit. from Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics, p628

6 Aristotle Poetics (cit. from Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and poets.) Princeton, 1969, p628

7 Greenough and Kittcridge. Words and their Ways in English Speech. N. Y., 1929, p. 55

8 Partridge, Eric. Slang Today and Yesterday. Ldn, 1935, p. 36. 3

10 Partridge, Eric. Op. cit., p. 5.

11 See also Prof. R.W. Burclifield's remark on the system of labelling in his Introduction to "A Supplement to the Oxford English Dictionary". Oxford, 1972, p. XVI.

12 ken = a house which harbors' thieves

13 spellken = a play-house or theatre

14 to queer a flat = to puzzle a silly fellow

15 to flash the muzzle (gun) on the high toby-spice = to rob on horse back

16 a lark = fun or sport of any kind

17 a blowing = a girl

18 swell = gentlemanly

19 nutty = pleasing (to be nuts on = to be infatuated with)

20 McKnight, G.H. Modern English in the Making. N.Y., 1956, p. 552.

21 Bough, Albert C. History of the English Language, p. 385.

22 McKnight, G.H. Modern English in the Making. Ldn, 1930, p. 556.

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The word stock of any language may be represented as a definite system in which different aspects of words may be singled out as interdependent.

Words may be grouped together on the basis of their common stylistic reference. Consider, for example, the following groups of words:

inquire – ask, obtain – get, proceed – go, pursue – run after, seek – look for.

Each of these two groups represents a different stylistic layer: the first group contains words of a literary-bookish layer, the second – stylistically neutral words.

Subdivisions within the class of stylistically marked words are numerous. But the main opposition lies between, words of literary sty1istic layer (words of Standard English) and those of non-literary stylistic layer (words of Sub-Standard English).

Stylistics considers the whole of the word stock of the English language as being divided into 3 main layers: 1) the literary layer; 2) the neutral layer; 3) the colloquial layer.

The neutral layer of words is the largest; words expressing only denotative meaning belong here. There is no connotation in the case, they just signify phenomena. Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are unrestricted in their use. They are used in both literary and colloquial language. They can be used in all styles and that makes this layer the most stable of all. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy.

Words of literary stylistic layer and the colloquial layer bear a kind of connotation, they change the colouring of the whole utterance. As a rule, they have synonyms among neutral words, for example: child – neutral; infant – literary; kid – colloquial.

2. Words of literary layer are characterized by its marked bookish character. Here belong: a) common literary words; b) terms and learned words; c) poetic words; d) archaisms or archaic words; e) barbarisms and foreign words; f) stylistic neologisms;

a) Common literary words are used in writing and polished speech. They are less emotional than colloquial words and are used in public and official speech. If used in private situations they may produce a humorous effect. Here are some examples showing the difference between words belonging to literary and neutral layer:

A great crowd came to see him (neutral).

A vast concourse was assembled to witness him (literary).

The man fell down (neutral). The individual was precipitated (literary).

b) Terms and learned words denote different kinds of notions referring to science, technique and arts. They are believed to be devoid expressiveness, emotional and evaluative connotation. Only stylistic component is present here. They tend to be monosemantic and are used in scientific prose. They may be used in fiction but to perform a specific stylistic role – reveal the profession of the character, contribute to the realistic background, they create a true-to-life atmosphere of the narration, indicate the peculiarities of the subject.

Terms are subdivided-into: 1) popular terms of some special spheres of human knowledge known to the public at large (typhoid, pneumonia); 2) terms used exclusively within a profession (phoneme, micro-linguistics);

c) Poetinisms or poetic words, words used exclusively in poetry and the like. Many of these words are archaic or obsolete, such as whilome (sometimes), aught (anything), ne (no, not), haply (may be); for ay (forever), I ween (I suppose), he kens (he knows); childe (a nobleman’s son).

Poetic words are seldom used in modern English. In ordinary environment they colour the utterance with an air of loftiness, for example: to go – to proceed; sorrow – woe; enemy – foe; kingdom – realm.

1) Archaisms proper, words which are no longer recognizable in modern English, they either dropped out of use altogether or have changed in their appearance beyond recognition, for example: troth – faith, loser – a lazy fellow;

2) Historical words which denote concepts and phenomena that have gone out of use, for example: knight, yeoman.

Words of this type never disappear from the language. They are historical terms and remain as terms referring to definite stages in the development of the society and cannot disappear though the things and phenomena to which they refer have long passed into oblivion. Historical words have no synonyms, whereas archaic words have been replaced by modern synonyms.

Archaic words are mainly used to create a realistic background to historical novels. Besides they are often used in the style of official documents and business letters (wherewith, hereby, aforesaid, etc.)

e) Foreign words and barbarisms (au revoir; ad absurdum, Bundeswehr).

They are both of foreign origin. Barbarisms have already become a part of the language though they remain on the outskirts of the literary vocabulary. They are registered in the dictionary.

Foreign words, though used for certain stylistic purposes, do not belong to the English vocabulary. They are not registered by English dictionaries. In printed works foreign words and phrases are generally italicized to indicate their alien nature or their stylistic value.

Barbarisms, on the contrary, are not made conspicuous in the text unless they bear special stylistic information.

There are foreign words in the English vocabulary which fulfill a terminological function. They should be distinguished from the barbarisms. Terminological borrowings have no synonyms; barbarisms, on the contrary, have almost exact synonyms. Barbarisms are a historical category. Once they were just foreign words used in literary English to express a concept non-existent in English reality, but gradually they entered the class of words named barbarisms, lost their foreign peculiarities, became more or less naturalized and have merged with the native English stock of words (conscious, retrograde), strenuous.

Both barbarisms and foreign words are widely used in various styles of language with various aims, which predetermine their typical functions.

One of these functions is to supply local colour, in order to depict local conditions of life, concrete facts and events, customs and habits.

Another function being the use of foreign words and barbarisms in the reported speech of a local inhabitant to reproduce his actual words, manner of speech and the environment.

Barbarisms convey the idea of cultural and educational status of the person. They betray the speakers’ desire to sound refined and pretentious.

Stylistic neologisms result from the search of a more fresh and expressive form of utterance which helps to communicate the idea. Most stylistic neologisms are made by affixation and word-compounding according to the productive models for word-building. New words built in this way are immediately perceived because of their unpredictable character, due to which the author conveys the idea straightforwardly (musicdom, gangdom, freckledom, where the suffix is used with the general meaning of collectivity; interrogatee, enrollee, askee; showmanship; supermanship etc.)

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Neutral words, which form the bulk of the English vocabulary, are used in both literary and colloquial language. Neutral words are the main source of synonymy and polysemy. It is the neutral stock of words that is so far prolific in the production of new meanings. Common literary words are chiefly used in writing and in polished speech. Common colloquial vocabulary overlaps into the standard English vocabulary and is therefore to be considered part of it. It borders both on the neutral vocabulary and on the special colloquial vocabulary, which falls out of the standard English altogether. The stylistic function of the different strata of the English vocabulary depends not so much on the inner qualities of each of the groups, as on their interaction when they are opposed to one another.

Specific literary vocabulary a) Terms Terms are generally associated with a definite branch of science and therefore with a series of other terms belonging to that particular branch of science. Terms are characterized by a tendency to be monosemantic and therefore easily call forth the required concept. Terms may appear in scientific style, newspaper style, publicistic style, the belles-lettres style, etc.

b) Poetic and highly literary words b) Poetic and highly literary words First of all poetic words belong to a definite style of language and perform in it their direct function. If encountered in another style of speech, they assume a new function, mainly satirical, for the two notions, poetry and prose, have been opposed to each other from time immemorial. Poetic language has special means of communication. Poetic words and ser expressions make the utterance understandable only to a limited number of readers. It is mainly due to poeticisms that poetical language is sometimes called poetical jargon.

c) Archaic words c) Archaic words The word stock of a language is in an increasing state of change. We’ll distinguish 3 stages in the aging process of words: 1) the beginning of the aging process when the word becomes rarely used. Such words are called obsolescent 2) The second group of archaic words are those that have already gone completely out of use but are still recognized by the English speaking community. These words are called obsolete. 3) The third group, which may be called archaic proper, are words which are no longer recognized in modern English.

d) Barbarisms and foreign words d) Barbarisms and foreign words Barbarisms are words of foreign origin which have not entirely been assimilated into the English language. Barbarisms, are also considered to be on the outskirts of the literary language. Most of them have corresponding English synonyms. Barbarisms are not made conspicuous in the text unless they bear a special load of stylistic information. Foreign words do not belong to the English vocabulary. Many foreign words and phrases have little by little entered the class of words named barbarisms and many of these barbarisms have gradually lost their foreign peculiarities.

e) literary coinages e) literary coinages Every period in the development of a language produces an enormous number of new words or new meanings of established words. Most of them do not live long. They are coined for use at the moment of speech, and therefore possess a peculiar property – that of temporariness. There are 2 types of newly coined words: 1) those which designate new-born concepts, may be named terminological coinages or terminological neologisms; 2) words coined because their creators seek expressive utterance may be named stylistic coinages or stylistic neologism. Neologisms are mainly coined according to the productive models for word-building in the given languages.

Special colloquial vocabulary a) Slang The “New Oxford English Dictionary” defines slang as follows: 1) the special vocabulary used by any set of persons of low or disreputable character; language of a low and vulgar type…; 2) the cant or jargon of a certain class or period; 3) language of highly colloquial type considered as below the level of standard educated speech, and consisting either of new words or current words employed in some special sense.

b) Jargonisms b) Jargonisms Jargon is a recognized term for a group of words that exist in almost every language and whose aim is to preserve secrecy within one or another social group. Jargonisms are generally old words with entirely new meanings imposed on them. Most of the jargonisms of any language are absolutely incomprehensible to those outside the social group which has invented them. They may be defined as a code within a code. Jargonisms are social in character.

c) Professionalisms c) Professionalisms Professionalisms are the words used in a definite trade, profession or calling by people connected by common interests both at work or at home. Professional words name anew already existing concepts, tools or instruments, and have the typical properties of a special code. Their main feature is technicality. They are monosemantic.

d) Dialectal words d) Dialectal words Dialectal words are those which in the process of integration of the English national language remained beyond its literary boundaries, and their use is generally confined to a definite locality. There sometimes is confusion between the terms dialectal, slang and vernacular. All these groups when used in emotive prose are meant to characterize the speaker as a person of a certain locality, breeding, education, etc. Some dialectal words are universally accepted as recognized units of the standard colloquial English.

e) Vulgar words e) Vulgar words The term vulgarism is rather misleading. Webster’s “New International Dictionary” defines vulgarism as “a vulgar phrase or expression, or one used only in colloquial, or, esp. in unrefined or low, speech”. I.R.Galperin defines vulgarisms as expletives or swear-words and obscene words and expressions. There are different degrees of vulgar words. Some of them, the obscene ones, are called “four-letter” words. A lesser degree of vulgarity is presented by expletives and they sometimes appear in euphemistic spelling.

f) Colloquial coinages f) Colloquial coinages Colloquial coinages (nonce-words) are spontaneous and elusive. Most of them disappear from the language leaving no trace in it. Some nonce-words and meanings may acquire legitimacy and thus become facts of the language, while on the other hand they may be classified as literary or colloquial according to which of the meanings is being dealt with.

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