Strong and weak forms of english words reduction реферат
Обновлено: 02.07.2024
The use of weak forms is an essential part of English speech and you must learn to use the weak forms of 33 English words if you want your English to sound English. Some words have more than one weak form and the follolwing list tells you when to use one and when the other.
| Word | Weak Form | Examples |
| and as but | ən əz bət | Black and white. As good as gold. But why not? |
| than | ðən | Better than ever. |
| that | ðət | I admit that I did it. |
| (The word that in phrases like that man, that's good is always pronounced [ðæt] and never weakened.) | ||
| he | i: | Did he win? |
| him | im | Give him two. |
| his | iz | I like his tie. |
| her | з: | Take her home. |
| (At the beginning of word groups the forms [hi;], [him], [hiz], [hз:] should be used: He likes it. Her face is red.) | ||
| them | ðəm | Send them by. post. |
| us | s (only in: let's) | Let's do it now. |
| əs | He would let us do it. | |
| do | də | How do they know? |
| [də] is only used before consonants. Before vowels, use the strong form [du:]: How do I know?) | ||
| does | dəz | When does the train leave? |
| am | m (after I) | I'm afraid. |
| əm (elsewhere) | When am I to be there? | |
| are | ə | |
| (before consonants) | The girls are beautiful. | |
| ər | ||
| (before vowels) | The men are ugly. | |
| be | bi | Don't be rude. |
| is | s | That's fine. |
| (after [p, t, k, f]) | ||
| z | John's here. | |
| (after vowels and voiced consonants except [z, ʒ, ʤ] ) | ||
| (After [s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ] the strong form [iz] is always used: Which is right?) | ||
| was has | wəz əz (after [s, z, ʃ, ʒ, ʧ, ʤ]) | The weather was terrible! The place has changed. |
| s (after [p, t, k, f, Ɵ]) | Jack's gone. | |
| z (elsewhere) | John's been sick. | |
| have | v (after I, we, you, they) | You've broken it. |
| əv (elsewhere) | The men have gone. | |
| had | d (after I, she, he, we, you, they) | They'd left home. |
| əd (elsewhere) | The day had been fine. | |
| (At the beginning of word groups the forms [hæz, hæv, hæd] should be used: Has anyone found? When has, have, had are full verbs they should always be pronounced [hæz, hæv, hæd]: I have two brothers.) | ||
| can shall will | kən ʃl l (after I, he, she, we, you, they) | How can I help? I shall be cross. They'll give it away. |
| l (after consonants except [1]) | This'll do. | |
| a | əl . ə (before consonants) | The boy will lose and the girs will win. A shilling a dozen |
| an | ən (before vowels) | Have an apple! |
| the | ðə (before consonants) | The more the merrier. |
| (Before vowels the strong form [ði:] should be used: The aunts and the uncles.) | ||
| some | səm | I need some paper. |
| (When some means a certain quantity it is always stressed and therefore pronounced [sʌm]: Some of my friends. | ||
| at for | ət fə (before consonants) | Come at once. Come for tea. |
| fər (before vowels) | Come for a meal. | |
| from of to | frəm əv tə (before consonants) | I sent it from London, the Queen of England. To stay or to go? |
| (Before vowels the strong form [tu:] should be used: I wanted to ask you.) |
Exercise I.Practise the following:
| A- Weak forms(shwa) | I B. Strong forms(full value) |
| I swallowed afly. | You say abook, achild, |
| Analligator bit him. | but anapple, anelephant. |
| What amI doing? | What amI to do? |
| I'm singing a song. | AmI serious? Yes, I'm afraid lam! |
| Bread andbutter. | Trifle or jelly? Trifle andjelly, please! |
| Over andover andover again. | Andshe's gossiping . |
| Where aremy glasses? | They aremine, they are,they are. |
| Her cakes areawful! | Areyou alone? |
| I'm ashappy asa king! ] Well, asfar asI can see. | As I pour it on, you stir it. As I was saying before you interrupted. |
| I got it ata cheap shop. We're here atlast! | He is selling it — but ata price. What are you staring at? |
| I'm ugly butintelligent! They say they are, butthey are not. | Butme no 'buts'. Butfor me, you would all be dead. |
| If you cando it, so canI. I cansee a star. | CanI come too? Mother says I can. |
| She said she couldcome. I'm so angry I couldswear. | Couldyou possibly help me? There! I told you I could! |
| When dowe begin? D'you understand? | Dolook at that funny man! What doyou do all day long? |
| What time doesit arrive? What does2 and 2 make? | Doesit work? Of course it does. Oh, she doeslook nice! |
| II | |
| My sister's prettier thanyours! It's easier thanI expected. | not really possible |
| He said thatI could have it. Tell her thatI shan't be coming. | That's the man who shot him. Thatbook belongs to me. I know that. |
| Thetiger ate thehunter. They dragged thebody into the house. | Are you theWilliam Shakespeare? My dear, they had themost awful row. |
| Tell themI'm just coming. She gave themeach a pound. | Don't give it to us, give it to them. Themas asks no questions, hears no lies! |
| Is therea party tonight? There's a burglar in my bedroom. | Look, therehe is, over there! Theregoes my last penny. |
| I went toLondon tosee the Queen. I wanted togo tothe cinema. | Who are you giving those flowers to? They got up toall kinds of mischief. |
| He told usto come back later. What do you want usto do? | So you told the Joneses, but not us! He's not going with you, he's coming with us. |
| It wasa dark and stormy night. I looked, but no one wasthere. | Wasthere any left in the bottle? I told you there was. |
| They weretelling us about it. Hundreds of people weredrowned. | Wereyou talking to me? Ididn't know where you were. |
| I'd like to have a word with you. Well, what wouldyou have done? | Wouldyou mind controlling your dog? Yes, I jolly well would! |
| Where are youqoing? What have youdone with it? | You think youknow everything. No one was talking to you. |
| Could you buy one on yourway home? Don't put yourhands in your pockets. | Yourapples are rather small. I wouldn't like to be in yourshoes. |
Exercise II.Transcribe, intone and read the following dialogues.
1. What a Boring Book You're Reading!
Jonathan: What are you doing, Elizabeth?
Elizabeth: What am ĩ doing? I'm reading. What does it look as though I'm doing?
Jonathan: What are you reading?
Elizabeth: A book, silly. What do you think? You can see I'm reading a book.
Jonathan: I wish I could have a look at it. Do you think I could have a look at it, Elizabeth? Elizabeth, is it an interesting book?
Elizabeth; Yes, a very interesting book. But an adult book. OK, come and have a look at it and then go away and leave me alone.
Jonathan: But what an awful book! It looks as boring as anything. How can you look at a book like that? What does it say?
Elizabeth: Jonathan! You're an awfully boring and annoying little boÿ! Go away!
Words can be subdivided into categories: lexical words, which keep qualitative and quantitative patterns of their sound form (N, Adj, V, Adv); function words which may have 2 or more qualitative or quantitative realizations depending if they are stressed or unstressed (aux v, prep, conj, articles). Stressed are strong forms, unstressed- weak form. Situations when the strong form of function word is obligatory: 1) isolation, 2) citation, 3) in form of contrast when special emphasis is required, 4) at the end of phrase/sentence (what is it made of?), 5) words that do not have weak form (do, have, has, had – if not aux, that, some), 6) he/his/him/her/who. Wnen the w-s are unstressed the initial sound is normally dropped. But at the beginning of the sentence it isn’t dropped (Did ‘e win?/ He won the prize), 7) In sentences which begin with the aux verb. Aux v are stressed if no stressed word follows it (are they coming?). In tag questions the verb is stressed, the pronoun- unstressed, 8) Indefinite adverb “there” in sentences is unstressed and weakened to “thr”. But demonstrative adv and adv of place are never weakened.
Neutralization. The pronunciation of words when the distinction between phonemes is lost in the particular environment (s-z in unstressed position in connected sp – it is, it’s, what’s).
Assimilation. When adjacent sounds within a word/ word boundary influence each other so that the articulation of the 1 sound becomes similar with the articulation of the other sound. Assimilated sound- whose articulation is modified. Assimilating sound – the one who influences articulation.
Accomodation - change of cons under the influence of a vowel (salt, false). Acc to impact it can be: partial (incomplete)- when 2 sounds become similar in 1 feature (news-newspaper), total (complete)- when 2 sounds become identical (illogical), intermediate (gooseberry). Acc to direction: regressive- when the sound changes because of the influence of the following sound, recyplical – 2 sounds change because of the mutual influence on each other (give me –gimmi), progressive- … because of the influence of preceding sound (you can). Acc to place: contact/direct- influence on adjacent sound (ten boys), distinct – influence of remote sound (very well).
Elision- omission of sounds in words. 1. Avoidance of complex cons clusters (postman=/posman/), 2. Loss of vowel after aspirated sounds (potato, today, connect), 3. Loss of final /v/ in of before some cons (cup of tea)
Intrusion- addition of sounds (film- filem)
Linking (fillers)- when we speak spontaneously we make extra pauses. Fillers lexical(anyway, so) and non-lexical (eee, mm).
Syllable: Definition; Parts of syllable; Types and functions of syllables; The structure of the syllable.
Speech can be broken into minimum pronounceable units where the sp sounds can reveal themselves- into syllables. Words can be monosyllabic and polysyllabic.
Syllable- is language unit which consists of one or more sounds and that is smaller than a word.
Vasyliev: Syll- is 1 or more sounds forming an uninterruptable unit of utterance which can form a whole word or a part of it. Kenyon: Syll- is 1 or more sounds forming an uninterruptable unit of utterance which may be a word or commonly recognized subdivision of a word.
The articulation that constitutes the syll results from the combined work of 4 mechanisms. The contraction of certain chest muscles accompanied with air pressure make up a syll. In pronouncing the syll the energy of articulation increases until it reaches its climax- the most energetically articulated phoneme in the syll. The valley of prominence- the weakest articulation marks boundary between 2 syllables. Sonorants and vowels are mostprominent in the syll and are produced in the peak. Peak is formed by sonorants and vowels. Slope- a sound that precedes the peack. Syllabograph- a syll in writing. Acoustically and auditorily the syll is characterized by the force of utterance, the pitch, sonority, length, the smallest unit of perception.
Types of syll: Acc to whether they end in v/c – open/closed. Acc to whether they begin in v/c- uncovered/covered. Torsuyev: V- fully open, VC- finally covered, CVC- fully closed, CV- initially covered.
The structure of the syll. Syll can be divided into: Onset- the beginning of the syll. Coda- the central part of the syll (nucleous). Syllabic segments- form nucleous of the syll. Phonotactics- the rules of syllabic arrangement.
The functions of the syll. The syll as a phonological unit performs 3 functions. 1) Constitutive. Syllables constitute words, phrases and sentences through the combination of their prosodic features: stressed/ unstressed (loudness), falling/ rising tone (pitch, intonation), length and tempo (duration). Prosodic features constitute prosodic patterns of words. 2) Distinctive. Lightening and lightning – the only minimal distinctive feature is their syllabicity. In English there are many combinations distinguished by means of difference in syllabic boundary ( a name- an aim, I scream- ice cream). Layjuncture (conjuncture) – occurs between sounds within one syll. Open juncture (disjuncture) – occurs between 2 syllables. 3) Identificatory function – is conditioned by the pronunciation of the speakers. The listener can understand the exact meaning of the utterance only if he perceives the correct syllabic boundary (pea stalks- peace talks, my train- might rain).
Note! The table of strong and weak forms is given in the attached file.
Word Stress
One or more syllables of a polysyllabic word have greater prominence than the others. Such syllables are said to be accented or stressed.
The degrees of word stress
In English there are three degrees of word stress: stressed syllables (primary stress), half-stressed syllables (secondary stress) and weak or unstressed syllables. A large group of polysyllabic simple words bear both the primary and the secondary stresses, e.g. ,conver'sation.
| Word stress | Ударение в слове |
| Word stress is stress in individual words. In isolation, each word has its own stress. Short words usually have one stress, and longer words usually have two stresses: primary stress and secondary stress. Word stress is also called word accent. | Словесное ударение – это ударение в отдельных словах. По отдельности, каждое слово имеет свое собственное ударение. Короткие слова обычно имеют одно ударение, а более длинные слова обычно имеют два ударения: главное и второстепенное. Word stress также называется word accent. |
| Primary and secondary stress | Главное и второстепенное ударение |
| Primary stress is the strongest stress that is given to a syllable in a word. Secondary stress is weaker than primary stress but stronger than absence of stress. | Главное ударение – самое сильное ударение, которое дается слогу в слове. Второстепенное ударение слабее, чем главное, но сильнее, чем отсутствие ударения. |
| Place of stress | Место ударения |
| The majority of English words have primary or secondary stress on the initial syllable. There are certain typical patterns of word stress in English. | Большинство английских слов имеют главное или второстепенное ударение на начальном слоге. В английском языке есть определённые типичные модели ударения в слове. |
| For example, nouns of two or three syllables are usually stressed on the first syllable (CARpet, FAMily, INcident). Two-syllable verbs with a prefix are usually stressed on the second syllable (beCOME, reTURN, conFIRM). | Например, существительные из двух или трёх слогов обычно имеют ударение на первом слоге (CARpet, FAMily, INcident). Двусложные глаголы с префиксом обычно имеют ударение на втором слоге (beCOME, reTURN, conFIRM). |
| Shift of stress | Смещение ударения |
| Stress in derivative words may remain the same as in the words from which they were derived (CUStom, CUStomary; obJECT, obJECtion), or it may shift to another syllable (PERson, perSONify; preFER, PREFerence). | Ударение в производных словах может остаться таким же, как в тех словах, от которых они были образованы (CUStom, CUStomary; obJECT, obJECtion), или оно может сместиться на другой слог (PERson, perSONify; preFER, PREFerence). |
| PREview (noun) – PREview (verb) | PREview (сущ.) – PREview (глагол) |
| HOSpital (noun) – HOSpitalize (verb) | HOSpital (сущ.) – HOSpitalize (глагол) |
| Shift of stress: | Смещение ударения: |
| preSENT (verb) – PRESent (noun) | preSENT (глагол) – PRESent (существительное) |
| reFER (verb) – REFerence (noun) | reFER (глагол) – REFerence (сущ.) |
| exTRACT (verb) – EXtract (noun) | exTRACT (глагол) – EXtract (сущ.) |
| inCREASE (verb) – INcrease (noun) | inCREASE (глагол) – INcrease (сущ.) |
| OBject (noun) – obJECT (verb) | OBject (сущ.) – obJECT (глагол) |
| Other parts of speech derived from nouns and verbs have the following typical patterns of stress. | Другие части речи, образованные от существительных и глаголов, имеют следующие типичные модели ударения. |
| Adjectives are usually stressed on the first syllable or repeat the stress of the nouns from which they were derived: fate (noun) – FATal (adj.); COLor (noun) – COLorful (adj.). But stress may change in longer derivative adjectives: METal (noun) – meTALlic (adj.); ATHlete (noun) – athLETic (adj.); geOLogy (noun) – 'geo'LOGical (adj.); ARgument (noun) – 'argu'MENtative (adj.). | Прилагательные обычно ударные на первом слоге или повторяют ударение существительных, от которых они были образованы: fate (сущ.) – FATal (прилаг.); COLor (сущ.) – COLorful (прилаг.). Но ударение может меняться в более длинных производных прилагательных: METal (сущ.) – meTALlic (прилаг.); ATHlete (сущ.) – athLETic (прилаг.); geOLogy (сущ.) – 'geo'LOGical (прилаг.); ARgument (сущ.) – 'argu'MENtative (прилаг.). |
| Adverbs are usually stressed on the first syllable or repeat the stress of the adjectives from which they were derived: ANgry – ANgrily; WONderful – WONderfully; FOOLish – FOOLishly; athLETic – athLETically. | Наречия обычно ударные на первом слоге или повторяют ударение прилагательных, от которых они были образованы: ANgry – ANgrily; WONderful – WONderfully; FOOLish – FOOLishly; athLETic – athLETically. |
| Gerunds and participles repeat the stress of the verbs from which they were formed: forGET – forGETting – forGOTten; CANcel – CANceling – CANceled; 'ORga'nize – 'ORga'nizing – ORganized. | Герундий и причастия повторяют ударение глаголов, от которых они были образованы: forGET (забывать) – forGETting – forGOTten; CANcel (отменять) – CANceling – CANceled; 'ORga'nize (организовать) – 'ORga'nizing – ORganized. |
| Sentence stress | Ударение в предложении |
| Sentence stress makes the utterance understandable to the listener by making the important words in the sentence stressed, clear, and higher in pitch and by shortening and obscuring the unstressed words. Sentence stress is the main means of providing rhythm in connected speech. All words have one or two stresses in isolation, but when they are connected into a sentence, important changes take place: content words are stressed, and function words are not stressed; sense groups are singled out phonetically; the unstressed syllables blend into a stream of less distinct sounds between the stressed syllables; in words with two stresses, one stress may be shifted or weakened to keep the rhythm; emphatic stress may be used in the sentence to single out the most important word; the last stressed word in the sentence gets the strongest stress with the help of the falling or rising tone. | Ударение в предложении делает высказывание понятным слушателю, делая важные слова ударными, отчетливыми и выше по тону и укорачивая и делая неотчетливыми неударные слова. Ударение в предложении – основное средство обеспечения ритма в связной речи. Все слова по отдельности имеют одно или два ударения, но когда они соединяются в предложение, происходят важные изменения: значимые слова имеют ударение, а служебные не имеют ударения; смысловые группы выделяются фонетически; неударные слоги сливаются в поток менее отчетливых звуков между ударными слогами; в словах с двумя ударениями одно ударение может быть смещено или ослаблено для сохранения ритма; эмфатическое ударение может применяться в предложении для выделения наиболее важного слова; последний ударный слог в предложении получает самое сильное ударение с помощью тона понижения или повышения. |
| One-syllable nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs are stressed on the vowel sound in the word. Note that a diphthong is one complex vowel sound that forms only one syllable. A diphthong is stressed on its first main component. | Односложные существительные, глаголы, прилагательные и наречия имеют ударение на гласном звуке в слове. Обратите внимание, что дифтонг – это один сложный гласный звук, который образует только один слог. Дифтонг имеет ударение на своём первом главном компоненте. |
| book, cat, rain, boat, crow, chair | книга, кот, дождь, лодка, ворона, стул |
| read, burn, touch, choose, laugh, hear | читать, гореть, трогать, выбрать, смеяться, слышать |
| new, bright, large, short, clear, loud | новый, яркий, большой, короткий, ясный, громкий |
| late, fast, soon, now | поздний / поздно, быстрый / быстро, скоро, сейчас |
There are three types of sentence stress:
1) Normal stress affects content words which convey the necessary information to the listener. I like oranges.
2) Logical stress. By shifting the position of the last stress we can change the place of the nucleus of the communicative center. My sister hates yellow jeans.
The type of sentence stress which gives special prominence to a new element in a sentence or an intonation group is called logical stress. The word which is singled out by the logical stress is the most important in the sentence.
3) Emphatic stress. Any word in sentence, including form words, personal and possessive pronouns, auxiliary and modal verbs may be logically stressed. Most utterances express not only the speaker's thoughts, but also feelings and attitudes to reality and to the sentence. Both normal and logical stresses can be unemphatic and emphatic. Emphatic stress increases the effort of expression. The High Fall of Rise-Fall are usually used in this case. You are so nice!
Благодаря прилагательным речь звучит ярче и эмоциональнее, однако нужно уметь правильно их подбирать, чтобы корректно выражать свои мысли. В статье подготовили сводку правил, исключений и примеров, чтобы вам было легче понять разницу между сильными и слабыми прилагательными.
Представьте, что вы прочитали книгу, которая понравилась, и вам хочется рассказать о ней друзьям или знакомым. Скорее всего, вы скажете: It’s a very interesting book (Это очень интересная книга). Но как выразить восхищение, если книга вам гораздо больше, чем просто понравилась? Первое, что приходит на ум, использовать превосходную степень: It’s the most interesting book I’ve ever read (Это самая интересная книга, которую я когда-либо читал). Однако есть и другой способ — заменить обычное английское прилагательное его сильной формой.
Слабые и сильные прилагательные: общие правила
Прилагательные в английском языке можно условно поделить на две группы:
- Слабые прилагательные:
- не имеют сильной эмоциональной окраски, а просто характеризуют какой-либо предмет;
- имеют степени сравнения;
- могут использоваться с такими словами, как very (очень), a bit (немного), rather (довольно), pretty (довольно, достаточно), quite (довольно), fairly (довольно) и т. д.
- Сильные прилагательные:
- имеют сильную эмоциональную окраску, поэтому используются для выражения очень сильных эмоций или состояний;
- большинство из них не имеют степеней сравнения;
- чаще всего к ним нельзя добавить такие слова, как very, a bit, rather, pretty, quite, fairly, так как их значения уже содержатся в определениях этих прилагательных. Например, со словом fantastic (потрясающий) нельзя использовать слово very, зато можно употреблять такие слова, как absolutely (совершенно), extremely (чрезвычайно), completely (совершенно), totally (совершенно, полностью).
При небольшом лексическом запасе студенты часто используют слабые прилагательные в паре с наречием very, однако мы рекомендуем их заменять на синонимичные сильные прилагательные.
Рассмотрим несколько примеров употребления сильных и слабых прилагательных в предложениях:
— Is it a very small country house?
— Yes, it’s tiny!
— Это очень маленький загородный дом?
— Да, крошечный.
— Was the film very bad?
— Yes, it was awful.
— Фильм был очень плохим?
— Да, он был ужасным.
— Did he look very sad?
— Yes, he looked miserable.
— Он выглядел очень расстроенным?
— Да, он выглядел несчастным.
Наречия, которые используются с сильными и слабыми прилагательными
Исключения из правил
Когда мы говорим о чем-либо с иронией и хотим сделать на этом акцент, то слабые наречия (absolutely, totally, virtually), которые обычно сочетаются с сильными прилагательными, можно использовать со слабыми. В то же время сильные наречия (rather, very) могут употребляться с сильными прилагательными.
The food we ordered was absolutely nice. — Еда, которую мы заказали, была абсолютно хороша.
The situation seemed to be rather impossible. — Ситуация казалась абсолютно неприемлемой.
Такие наречия, как fairly, really, pretty и extremely считают универсальными, так как они могут использоваться как с сильными, так и со слабыми прилагательными.
This writer is fairly popular now. His books are all bestsellers. — Сейчас этот писатель довольно популярен. Все его книги — бестселлеры.
I have no idea why this song is such an earworm — it’s fairly awful. — Я не понимаю, почему эта песня не вылазит у меня из головы. Она же довольно отвратительная.
Выражать эмоции на английском вы можете на встречах разговорных клубов. Общайтесь с интересными собеседниками и развивайте навык говорения.
Рекомендуем пройти тест, чтобы хорошо запомнить правила употребления слабых и сильных прилагательных в английском языке — подберите к сильным прилагательным слабые наречия и наоборот.
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