Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices кратко

Обновлено: 07.07.2024

INTENTIONAL MIXING OF THE STYLISTIC ASPECT OF WORDS ( Metaphor , Metonymy , Irony ) INTERACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING INTERACTION OF PRIMARY DICTIONARY AND CONTEXTUALLY IMPOSED MEANINGS 2. INTERACTION OF PRIMARY AND DERIVATIVE LOGICAL MEANINGS ( Stylistic Devices Based on Polysemantic Effect, Zeugma and Pun ) 3. INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND EMOTIVE MEANINGS ( Interjections and Exclamatory Words , The Epithet , Oxymoron ) 4. INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND NOMINAL MEANINGS ( Antonomasia ) Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices

INTENTIONAL MIXING OF THE STYLISTIC ASPECT OF WORDS Heterogeneity of the component parts of the utterance is the basis for a stylistic device called bathos. Unrelated elements are brought together as if they denoted things equal in rank or belonging to one class, as if they were of the same stylistic aspect. "Sooner shall heaven kiss earth— (here he fell sicker) Whenever literary words come into collision with non-literary ones there arises incongruity, which in any style is always deliberate, inasmuch as a style presupposes a conscious selection of language means.

B. INTERACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING INTERACTION OF PRIMARY DICTIONARY AND CONTEXTUALLY IMPOSED MEANINGS 2. INTERACTION OF PRIMARY AND DERIVATIVE LOGICAL MEANINGS ( Stylistic Devices Based on Polysemantic Effect, Zeugma and Pun ) 3. INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND EMOTIVE MEANINGS ( Interjections and Exclamatory Words , The Epithet , Oxymoron ) 4. INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND NOMINAL MEANINGS ( Antonomasia )

B. INTERACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING INTERACTION OF PRIMARY DICTIONARY AND CONTEXTUALLY IMPOSED MEANINGS Words in context may acquire additional lexical meanings not fixed in dictionaries, what we have called contextual meanings. What is known in linguistics as transferred meaning is practically the interrelation between two types of lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual. The contextual meaning will always depend on the dictionary (logical) meaning to a greater or lesser extent. The transferred meaning of a word may be fixed in dictionaries as a result of long and frequent use of the word other than in its primary meaning.

B. INTERACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING INTERACTION OF PRIMARY DICTIONARY AND CONTEXTUALLY IMPOSED MEANINGS Metaphor The stylistic device based on the principle of identification of two Objects is called a metaph о r. The term 'metaphor', as the etymology of the word reveals, means transference of some quality from one object to another, and has been known to denote the transference of meaning from one word to another. It is better to define metaphor as the power of realizing two lexical meanings simultaneously. floods of tears потоки слез a storm of indignation шторм негодования a shadow of a smile тень улыбки pancake/ball → the sun блин / шар → солнце

B. INTERACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING INTERACTION OF PRIMARY DICTIONARY AND CONTEXTUALLY IMPOSED MEANINGS Metonymy Metonymy is based on a different type of relation between the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on identification, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent. Thus, the word crown may stand for 'king or queen', cup or glass for 'the drink it contains', woolsack for 'the Chancellor of the Exchequer who sits on it, or the position and dignity of the Lord Chancellor', e. g., "Here the noble lord inclined his knee to the Woolsack." (from Hansard ). The hall applauded. Зал приветствовал (под "залом" подразумевается не помещение, а зрители, находящиеся в зале). The bucket has spilled . Ведро расплескалось (не само ведро, а вода в нём). INTERACTION OF PRIMARY DICTIONARY AND CONTEXTUALLY IMPOSED MEANINGS

B. INTERACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING INTERACTION OF PRIMARY DICTIONARY AND CONTEXTUALLY IMPOSED MEANINGS Irony Irony is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings—dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings stand in opposition to each other. "It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket.“ The italicized word acquires a meaning quite the opposite to its primary dictionary meaning, that is, 'unpleasant', 'not delightful'. The word containing the irony is strongly marked by intonation. She turned with the sweet smile of an alligator. Она повернулась со сладкой улыбкой аллигатора. Но ирония не всегда бывает смешной, она может быть жестокой и оскорбительной. How clever you are! Ты такой умный ! (Подразумевается обратное значение - глупый.) INTERACTION OF PRIMARY DICTIONARY AND CONTEXTUALLY IMPOSED MEANINGS

B. INTERACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING Stylistic Devices Based on Polysemantic Effect Polysemy is a category of lexicology and as such belongs to language-as-a-system. In actual everyday speech polysemy vanishes unless it is deliberately retained for certain stylistic purposes. A context that does not seek to produce any particular stylistic effect generally materializes but one definite meaning. "Then hate me if thou wilt, if ever now. Now while the world is bent my deeds to cross." The word 'hate' materializes several meanings in this context. 2. INTERACTION OF PRIMARY AND DERIVATIVE LOGICAL MEANINGS

B. INTERACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING Zeugma Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two adjacent words in the context, the semantic relations being, on the on hand, literal, and, on the other, t га nsferred . "Dora, plunging at once into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room". (B. Shaw) 'To plunge' (into the middle of a room) materializes the meaning 'to rush into' or 'enter impetuously'. Here it is used in its concrete, primary, literal meaning; in 'to plunge into privileged intimacy' the word 'plunge' is used in its derivative meaning. She lost her bag and mind. Она потеряла свою сумку и рассудок. 2. INTERACTION OF PRIMARY AND DERIVATIVE LOGICAL MEANINGS

B. INTERACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING Pun The p и n is another stylistic device based on the interaction of two well-known meanings of a word or phrase. It is difficult do draw a hard and fast distinction between zeugma and the pun. The only reliable distinguishing feature is a structural one: zeugma is the realization of two meanings with the help of a verb which is made to refer to different subjects or objects (direct or indirect). The pun is more independent. "The woods are lovely, dark and deep. But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep.“ The word 'promises' here is made to signify two concepts, viz. 1) a previous engagement to be fulfilled and 2) moral or legal obligation. 2. INTERACTION OF PRIMARY AND DERIVATIVE LOGICAL MEANINGS

B. INTERACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING Interjections and Exclamatory Words Interjections are words we use when we express our feelings strongly and which may be said to exist in language as conventional symbols of human emotions. The role of interjections in creating emotive meanings has already been dealt with. It remains only to show how the logical and emotive meanings interact and to ascertain their general functions and spheres of application. Oh, where are you going to, all you Big Steamers? (Kipling) The interjection oh by itself may express various feelings, such as regret, despair, disappointment, sorrow, woe, surprise, astonishment, lamentation, entreaty and many others. Here it precedes a definite sentence and must be regarded as a part of it. It denotes the ardent tone of the question. 3. INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND EMOTIVE MEANINGS

B. INTERACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING The Epithet The epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and logical meaning m an attributive word, phrase or even sentence used to characterize an object and pointing out to the reader, and frequently imposing on him, some of the properties or features of the object with the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation of these features or properties. The epithet is markedly subjective and evaluative. silvery laugh серебристый смех a thrilling tale волнующий/захватывающий рассказ a sharp smile острая улыбка 3. INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND EMOTIVE MEANINGS

B. INTERACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING Oxymoron Oxymoron is a combination of two words (mostly an adjective and a noun or an adverb with an adjective) in which the meanings of the two clash, being opposite in sense, for example: 'low skyscraper', 'sweet sorrow', 'nice rascal', 'pleasantly ugly face', 'horribly beautiful', 'a deafening silence', If the primary meaning of the qualifying word changes or weakens, the stylistic effect of oxymoron is lost. The suffering was sweet ! Страданье было сладким! 3. INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND EMOTIVE MEANINGS

B. INTERACTION OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEXICAL MEANING Antonomasia The interplay between the logical and nominal meanings of a word is called ant о nomasia . As in other stylistic devices based on the interaction of lexical meanings, the two kinds of meanings must be realized in the word simultaneously. The Iron Lady Железная леди Casanova Казанова Mr . All-Know Мистер всезнающий "Among the herd of journals which are published in the States, there are some, the reader scarcely need be told, of character and credit. From personal intercourse with accomplished gentlemen connected with publications of this class, I have derived both pleasure and profit. But the name of these is Few, and of the other Legion, and the influence of the good is powerless to counteract the mortal poison of the bad. (Dickens) The use of the word name made the author write the words 'Few', and 'Legion' with capital letters. It is very important to note that this device is mainly realized in the written language, because generally capital letters are the only signals to denote the presence of the stylistic device. INTERACTION OF LOGICAL AND NOMINAL MEANINGS

Words in a context may acquire additional lexical meanings not fixed in the dictionaries, what we call contextual meanings. The latter may sometimes deviate from the dictionary meaning to such a degree that the new meaning even becomes the opposite of the primary meaning. It is the interrelation between two types of lexical meaning: dictionary and contextual.

The transferred meaning of a word may be fixed in dictionaries as a result of long and frequent use of the word other than in its primary meaning. In this case we register a derivative meaning of the word. When we perceive two meanings of the word simultaneously, we deal with a stylistic device in which the two meanings interact.

Classification of Lexical Stylistic Devices (SD)

SD are usually classified into:

1. SD based on the interaction of different types of lexical meaning.

a) dictionary and contextual (metaphor, metonymy, irony);

b) primary and derivative (zeugma and pun);

c) logical and emotive (epithet, oxymoron);

d) logical and nominative (autonomasia);

2. SD based on the intensification of a feature (simile, hyperbole, periphrasis).

SD based on the peculiar use of set expressions (cliches, proverbs, epigram, quotations).

I. The Interaction of Different Types of Lexical Meaning

1. Interaction of Dictionary And Contextual Logical Meaning

The relation between dictionary and contextual meanings may be maintained along different lines: on the principle of affinity, on that of proximity, or symbol - referent relations, or on opposition. Thus the stylistic device based on the first principle is metaphor, on the second, metonymy and on the third, irony

A metaphor is a relation between the dictionary and contextual logical meanings based on the affinity or similarity of certain properties or features of the two corresponding concepts. Metaphor can be embodied in all the meaningful parts of speech, in nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs and sometimes even in the auxiliary parts of speech , as in prepositions. Metaphor as any stylistic devices can be classified according to their degree of unexpectedness. Thus metaphors which are absolutely unexpected, are quite unpredictable, are called genuine metaphors.

e. g. Through the open window the dust danced and was golden.

Those which are commonly used in speech and are sometimes fixed in the dictionaries as expressive means of language are trite metaphors or dead metaphors e. g. a flight of fancy, floods of tears.

Trite metaphors are sometimes injected with new vigour, their primary meaning is re-established alongside the new derivative meaning. This is done by supplying the central image created by the metaphor with additional words bearing some reference to the main word.

e. g. Mr. Pickwick bottled up his vengeance and corked it down.

The verb " to bottle up " is explained as " to keep in check", to conceal, to restrain, repress. So the metaphor can be hardly felt. But it is revived by the direct meaning of the verb "to cork down". Such metaphors are called sustained or prolonged. Stylistic function of a metaphor is to make the description concrete, to express the individual attitude.

Metonymy is based on a relation between the dictionary and contextual meanings, a relation based not on affinity, but on some kind of association connecting the two concepts which these meanings represent on a proximity.

The proximity may be revealed:

1) between the symbol and the thing it denotes;

e.g. The leaves dropped off his imaginary crown of laurel, he turned to the galt and cried bitterly.

2) in the relations between the instrument and the action performed with this instrument;

e.g. His pen is rather sharp.

3) in the relation between the container and the thing it contains;

e.g. He drank one more cup.

4) the concrete is put for the abstract;

e. g. It was a representative gathering (science, politics).

5) a part is put for the whole;

e.g. the crown - king, a hand - worker.

Metonymy represents the events of reality in its subjective attitude. Metonymy in many cases is trite.

e.g.:" to earn one's bread", "to keep one's mouth shut".

Irony is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings - dictionary and contextual, but the two meanings are in opposition to each other. The literal meaning is the opposite of the intended meaning. One thing is said and the other opposite is implied.

e.g. Nice weather, isn't it? (on a rainy day).

Тут вы можете оставить комментарий к выбранному абзацу или сообщить об ошибке.

The interaction of different types of a word’s meanings: dictionary, contextual, derivative, nominal, and emotive.

A. Means based on the interplay of dictionary and contextual meanings: metaphor: Dear Nature is the kindest Mother still. (Byron).

‘Speed!” he shouted. And pushed it up to one hundred and five miles an hour and tore the breath out of his mouth (R.D. Bradbury).

… but hearing only the scream of the car(R.D. Bradbury).

The thunder faded (R.D. Bradbury).

metonymy: The camp, the pulpit and the law For rich man’s sons are free. (Shelly)

irony: It must be delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one’s pocket.

…Well, c’est la vie, as Eric so originally says. (V. Nabokov. Pnin).

B. Means based on the interaction of primary and derivative meanings:

polysemy: Massachusetts was hostile to the American flag, and she would not allow it to be hoisted on her State House;

zeugma: May’s mother always stood on her gentility, and Dot’s mother never stood on anything but her active little feet. (Dickens)

“Dora, plunging at once into privileged intimacy and into the middle of the room”. (B. Shaw)

The pun: “Bow to the board,” said Bumble. Oliver brushed away two or three tears that were ling/g/erring (сдерживать, удерживать) in his eyes; and seeing no board but the table, fortunately bowed to that’. (Dickens)

Puns are often used in riddles and jokes, for example, in this riddle: What is the difference between a schoolmaster and an engine-driver? (One trains the mind and the other minds the train.)

C. Means based on the opposition of logical and emotive meanings:

interjections and exclamatory words:

All present life is but an interjection

An ‘Oh’ or ‘Ah’ of joy or misery,

Or a ‘Ha! ha!’ or ‘Bah!’—a yawn or ‘Pooh!’

Of which perhaps the latter is most true.

Epithet (an adjective or descriptive phrase used to chracterise a person or object with the aim to give them subjective evaluation): a well-matched, fairly-balanced give-and-take (взаимные уступки, компромисс, обмен любезностями) couple. (Dickens).

… as he was helping her into her coat and as usual searching with a frown for the fugitive armhole. (V. Nabokov. Pnin).

… two monstrous status on primitive eyes of stone…(V. Nabokov. Pnin).

Oxymoron(a figure of speech in which opposite or contradictory ideas are combined): peopled desert, populous solitude, proud humility. (Byron)

D. Means based on the interaction of logical and nominal meanings:

Antonomasia (the use of a proper name in place of a common one or vice versa to emphasise some feature or quality): Mr. Facing-Both-Ways does not get very far in this world (The Tunes)

II. The principle for distinguishing is based on the interaction between two lexical meanings simultaneously materialised in the context.

simile: treacherous as a snake, faithful as a dog, slow as a tortoise.

…morose étagères with bits of dark-looking glass in the back as mouruful as the eyes of old apes (V. Nabokov. Pnin).

“Maidens, like moths, are ever caughtby glare” (Byron).

… two limpy old ladies in semitransparent rain-coats, like potatoes on cellophane (V. Nabokov, ‘Pnin’)

Periphrasis/circumlocution(renaming of an object by a phrase that emphasizes some particular feature of the object): a gentleman of the long robe (a lawyer); the fair sex, (women).

… an old inn frequented only by the peaceful sons of traffic (W. Irving).

Logical periphrasis: instruments of destruction (Dickens); the most pardonable of human weaknesses (Dickens); the object of his admiration (Dickens); that proportion of the population which. is yet able to read words of more than one syllable, and to read them without perceptible movement of the lips= ‘half-literate’.

Figurative periphrasis: ‘the punctual servant of all work’ (Dickens); ‘in disgrace with fortune and men’s eyes’ (Shakespeare); ‘to tie the knot’.

Euphemismis a word or phrase used to replace an unpleasant word or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one: In private I should call him a liar. In the Press you should use the words: ‘Reckless disregard for truth’. (Galsworthy).

To pass away, to expire, to be no more, to depart, to join the majority, to be gone.

1) religious: Father, Mother, Son, children.

2) moral: smock/shift/chemise/combination/step-in; a woman of a certain type; a four-letter word; to glow – to sweat.

3) medical: madhouse – lunatic asylum – mental hospital; idiots, imbeciles, the feeble-minded – low, medium and high-grade mental defectives; insane – person of unsound mind, mentally-ill patients; ;

4) parliamentary: liar – a purveyor of terminological inexactitudes, jackass/goose; dog, rat, swine/halfwit, Tory clot;

5) political: tension – uprising; undernourishment – starvation; capitalists – free enterprises; profit – savings; the building up of labour reserves – unemployment; dismissal/discharge/firing – the reorganization of the enterprise.

Hyperbole: The earth was made for Dombey and Son to trade in and the sun and the moon were made to give them light. (Dickens).

“He was so tall that I was not sure he had a face.” (O. Henry).

III. The subdivision comprises stable word combinations in their interaction with the context:

A clicheis an expression that has become hackneyed and trite: clockwork precision, crushing defeat, the whip and carrot policy, rosy dreams of youth, the patter of little feet, deceptively simple, effective guarantees, immediate issues, statement of policy, reliable sources, buffer zone, to grow by leaps and bounds, to withstand the test of time, to let bygones bygones, to be unable to see the wood for the trees, to upset the apple-cart, to have an ace upon one’s sleeve, the patter of the rain, part and parcel, a diamond in the rough.

Proverbs and sayings.

Typical features: rhythm, sometimes rhyme and/or alliteration. But the most characteristic feature of a proverb or a saying lies not in its formal linguistic expression, but in the content-form of the utterance: brevity+ the actual wording becomes a pattern which needs no new wording to suggest extensions of meaning which are contextual

Proverbsare brief statements showing in condensed form the accumulated life experience of the community and serving as conventional practical symbols for abstract ideas:

To cut one’s coat according to one’s cloth.

Early to bed and early to rise, Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.

Come! he said, milk’s spilt. (Galsworthy).

First come, first served.

Out of sight, out of mind.

Epigrams.

An epigramis a stylistic device akin to a proverb, the only difference being that epigrams are coined by individuals whose names we know, while proverbs are the coinage of the people:

Art is triumphant when it can use convention as an instrument of its own purpose. A God that can be understood is no God.

A thing of beauty is a joy for ever. (Keats)

Quotations:

A quotationis a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech and the like used by way of authority, illustration, proof or as a basis for further speculation on the matter in hand. Quotations are usually marked off in the text by inverted commas (“ “), dashes (—), italics or other graphical means: Ecclesiastes said, ‘that all is vanity’.(Byron)

Allusions:

An allusionis an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday life made in the course of speaking or writing. An allusion is only a mention of a word or phrase which may be regarded as the key-word of the utterance:

“Where is the road now, and its merry incidents of life’, old honest, pimple-nosed coachmen? I wonder where are they, those good fellows? Is old Weller alive or dead?” (Thackeray).

“Shakespeare talks of the herald Mercury

New lighted on a heaven-kissing hill;

And some such visions cross’d her majesty

While her young herald knelt before her still.

‘Tis very true the hill seem’d rather high,

For a lieutenant to climb up; but skill

Smooth’d even the Simplon’s steep, and by God’s blessing

With youth and health all kisses are heaven-kissing.”