Methods and procedures of lexicological research реферат
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but natural that lexicographic definitions lend themselves as suitable material for the analysis of lexical groups in terms of a finite set of semantic components. Consider the following definitions given in Hornby's
Cow— a full grown female of any animal of the ox family.
Calf — the young of the cow.
The first definition contains all the elements we have previously obtained from proportional oppositions. The second is incomplete but we can substitute the missing elements from the previous definiton. It is possible to describe parts of the vocabulary by formalising these definitions and reducing them to some standard form according to a set of rules.
Componential analysis may be also arrived at through transformational procedures. It is assumed that sameness / difference of transforms is indicative of sameness / difference in the componental structure of the lexical unit. The example commonly analysed is the difference in the transforms of the structurally identical lexical units, puppydog, bulldog, lapdog. The difference in the semantic relationship between the stems of the compounds and hence the difference in the component of the word-meaning is demonstrated by the impossibility of the same type of transforms for all these words. Thus, a puppydog may be transformed into ‘a dog (which) is a puppy’, bull-dog, however, is not ‘a dog which is a bull’, neither is a lapdog ‘a dog which is a lap’. A bulldog may be transformed into ‘a bulllike dog’, or ‘a dog which looks like a bull’, but a lapdog is not ‘a dog like a lap’.
свекор - (фізичний об'єкт) (живий) (людина) (чоловік) (той, хто має одруженого сина) (по відношенню до дружини сина)
холостяк - (фізичний об'єкт) (живий) (людина) (чоловік) (дорослий) (той, що ніколи не одружувався)
рухатися (щодо живої істоти) (по землі) (пересуваючи ноги)
плентатися (щодо живої істоти) (по землі) (пересуваючи ноги) (повільно, через силу).
I.7. Method of Semantic Differential
All the methods of semantic analysis discussed above are aimed mainly or exclusively at the investigation of the denotational component of the lexical meaning.
The analysis of the differences of the connotational meaning is very hard since the nuances are often slight, difficult to grasp and do not yield themselves to objective investigation and verification.
An attempt to establish and display these differences was developed by a group of American psycholinguists. They set up a technique known as the semantic differential by means of which, as they claim, meaning can be measured. It is perfectly clear, however, that what semantic differential measures is not word-meaning in any of accepted senses of the term but the connotational component of meaning or to be more exact the emotive charge.
Their technique requires the subjects to judge a series of concepts with respect to a set of bipolar (antonymic) adjective scales. For example, a concept like horse is to be rated as to the degree to which it is good or bad, fast or slow, strong or weak, etc.
The meaning of the seven divisions is, taking as an example the first of the scales represented above, from left to right: extremely good, quite good, slightly good, neither good nor bad (or equally good and bad) slightly bad, quite bad, extremely bad.
In the diagram above horse is described as neither good nor bad, extremely fast, quite strong, slightly hard, equally happy and sad. The responses of the subjects produce a semantic profile representing the emotive charge of the word.
I.8. Contextual Analysis
Contextual analysis concentrates its attention on determining the minimal stretch of speech and the conditions necessary to reveal in which of its individual meanings the word in question is used. In studying this interaction of the polysemantic word with the syntactic configuration and lexical environment contextual analysis is more concerned with specific features of every particular language than with language universals.
Roughly, context may be subdivided into lexical, syntactical and mixed. Lexical context, for instance, determines the meaning of the word black in the following examples. Black denotes colour when used with a key-word naming some material or thing, black velvet, black gloves. When used with keywords denoting feeling or thought, it means 'sad', 'dismal': black thoughts, black despair. With nouns denoting time, the meaning is 'unhappy', 'full of hardships': black days, black period.
In Ukrainian: чорне діло; чорна справа - підступні вчинки, які викликають огиду, осуд, чорне слово - лайливий вираз із згадуванням чорта, чорний ворон - машина, в якій перевозять заарештованого. чорні дні - дуже важкий час, сповнений неприємних клопотів, страждань, нужди, чорна хмара (туча) - Дуже сумний, похмурий, невеселий, невдоволений.
If, on the other hand, the indicative power belongs to the syntactic pattern and not to the words which make it up, the context is called syntactic. Make means 'to cause' when followed by a complex object: I couldn't make him understand a word 1 said.
A purely syntactic context is rare. As a rule the indication comes from syntactic, lexical and sometimes morphological factors combined. Thus late, when ussd predicatively, means 'after the right, expected or-fixed time', as to be late for school. When used attributively with words denoting periods of time, it means 'towards the end of the period', in late summer. Used attributively with proper personal nouns and preceded with a definite article, late means 'recently dead'.
To sum up, the study of details may be more exact with the contextual method.
Acquaintance with the currently used procedures of linguistic investigation shows that contrastive analysis and statistical analysis are widely used in the preparation of teaching material and are of primary importance for teachers of English.
The special interest of contemporary science in methods of linguistics research extends over a period of about twenty five years. The present status of principles and techniques in lexicology, although still far from satisfactory, shows considerable progress. The structural synchronic approach may be said to have grown into a whole system of procedures which can be used either successively or alternately.
The main procedures belonging to this system are the analysis into immediate constituents; distributional analysis with substitution test as part of it; transformational analysis; componential analysis, and statistical analysis.
Bach of these techniques viewed separately has its limitations but taken together they complete one another, so that each successive procedure may prove helpful where the previous one has failed. We have considered these devices time and again in discussing separate aspects of the vocabulary system. All these are formalized methods in the sense that they replace the original words in the linguistic material sampled, for analysis by symbols that can be discussed without reference to the particular elements they stand for, and then state precise rules for the combination and transformation of formulas thus obtained.
Арнольд И.В. Лексикологя современного английского языка. -3-е изд., перераб. и доп.- М.: Высшая школа, 1986.-295 с.
Ахматова О.С., Глушко М.М. Основы компонентного анализа.- М., 1969.-150 с.
Бродська В. Лексико-стилістичний аналіз тексту методом статистичної лексикографії. - Чернівці: Рута, 2003. — 199 с.
Верба Л.Г. Порівняльна лексикологія англійської та української мов. -Вінниця: Нова книга, 2003.-160 с.
Гальперин И.Р. Стилистика английского языка.- 2-е изд., испр. и доп.- М.: Высшая школа, 1977.- 332 с.
Головин Б.И. Из курса лексики по лингвистической статистике.- Горький, 1966.-285 с.
Зеленько А.С.Основи лексикології (під кутом зору теорії лінгвістичного детермінізму) : Моногр. дослідж. - Луганськ: Альма-матер, 2003. -178 с.
Лексикология английского языка: Р.З. Гинзбург, С.С. Хидекель, Г.Ю. Князева.- 2-е изд., испр. и доп.- М.: Высшая школа, 1979.- 269 с.
Фрумина Р.М. Статистические методы изучения лексики. -М., 1992.-206 с.
Порівняльна лексикологія : Конспект лекцій та дидакт. матеріал для студ. лінгв. спец. / Черкас. інж.-технол. ін-т; [Уклад.: Лещенко Г.В. та ін.] — Черкаси, 2000. - 86 c.
Українська мова : Лексикологія. Фразеологія. Словотвір: Навч.-метод. комплекс. / Карпалюк В.С., Каньоса П.С., Карпалюк Н.В.; Кам’янець-Поділ. держ. ун-т. — Кам’янець-Подільський: [Мошак], 2004. - 207 с.
Українська практична лексикологія, фонетика, орфографія / А.П.Загнітко, Л.І.Пац, Л.І.Дубовик, О.Г.Важеніна. — Донецьк: Бао, 2007. - 328 с.
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The process of scientific investigation. Contrastive Analysis. Statistical Methods of Analysis. Immediate Constituents Analysis. Distributional Analysis and Co-occurrence. Transformational Analysis. Method of Semantic Differential. Contextual Analysis.
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The process of scientific investigation may be subdivided into several stages:
1. Observation (statements of fact must be based on observation)
2. Classification (orderly arrangement of the data)
3. Generalization(formulation of a generalization or hypothesis, rule a law)
4. The verifying process. Here, various procedures of linguistic analysis are commonly applied:
1). Contrastive analysis attempts to find out similarities and differences in both philogenically related and non-related languages. In fact contrastive analysis grew as the result of the errors which are made recurrently by foreign language students. They can be often traced back to the differences in structure between the target language and the language of the learner, detailed comparison of these two languages has been named contrastive analysis.
Contrastive analysis brings to light the essence of what is usually described as idiomatic English, idiomatic Russian etc., i.e. the peculiar way in which every language combines and structures in lexical units various concepts to denote extra-linguistic reality.
2). Statistical analysis is the quantitative study of a language phenomenon. Statistical linguistics is nowadays generally recognised as one of the major branches of linguistics. (frequency – room, collocability)
3). Immediate constituents analysis.The theory of Immediate Constituents (IC) was originally elaborated as an attempt to determine the ways in which lexical units are relevantly related to one another. The fundamental aim of IC analysis is to segment a set of lexical units into two maximally independent sequences or ICs thus revealing the hierarchical structure of this set.
4). Distributional analysis and co-occurrence.By the term distributionwe understand the occurrence of a lexical unit relative to other lexical units of the same level (the position which lexical units occupy or may occupy in the text or in the flow of speech). Distributional analysis is mainly applied by the linguist to find out sameness or difference of meaning.
5). Transformational analysiscan be definedas repatterning of various distributional structures in order to discover difference or sameness of meaning of practically identical distributional patterns. It may be also described as a kind of translation (transference of a message by different means).
6). Componental analysis (1950’s). In this analysis linguists proceed from the assumption that the smallest units of meaning are sememes (семема - семантическая единица) or semes (сема (минимальная единица содержания)) and that sememes and lexemes (or lexical items) are usually not in one-to-one but in one-to-many correspondence (e.g. in lexical item “woman”, semems are – human, female, adult). This analysis deals with individual meanings.
7).Method of Semantic Differential (set up by American psycholinguists). The analysis is concerned with measurement of differences of the connotational meaning, or the emotive charge, which is very hard to grasp.
Acquaintance with the currently used procedures of linguistic investigation is of considerable importance both for language learners and for prospective teachers as it gives them the possibility to observe how linguists obtain answers to certain questions and is of help in the preparation of teaching material. It also helps language learners to become good observers of how language works and this is the only lasting way to become better users of language.
The process of scientific investigation may be subdivided into several stages: 1. observation; 2. classification of the data obtained through observation; 3. generalization, i.e. the collection of data and their orderly arrangement must lead to the formulation of a generalization or hypothesis, rule or law; 4. verifying process.
All methods of linguistic analysis are traditionally subdivided into formalized and non-formalized procedures. The selection of this or that particular procedure largely depends on the goal set before the investigator.
Contrastive Analysis
Contrastive linguistics attempts to find out similarities and differences in languages. Detailed comparison of the structure of a native and a target lan guage is called contrastive analysis. The necessity of this analysis is very great for a language learner. One of major problems in learning of the second language is interference caused by the difference between the mother language of the learner and the target language. This analysis is applied to reveal the features of sameness and difference in the lexical meaning and the semantic structure of correlated words in different languages, e.g.: нога - foot, leg; рука -arm, hand; часы - clock, watch.
English: head of a person - in Russian: голова
of a bed изголовье
of а со in сторона
of a match головка
of a table глава
of an organization глава, начальник
Head corresponds to different words in Russian.
Contrastive analysis on the level of the grammatical meaning reveals that correlated words in different languages may .differ in the grammatical component of the meaning, e.g. news, money, hair - in Russian they have the grammatical meaning of plurality, in English they are singular.
Another example: in Russian there is no category of definite-ness/ indefiniteness, in English this category is expressed by means of articles.
Contrastive analysis deals with idiomatic (phraseological) side of the language too.
He is a heavy smoker, - He smokes a lot;
He is a hearty eater. - He likes to eat.
In general, contrastive analysis is of paramount importance for scientists and language-learning people, as it predicts typical errors.
Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis has considerable importance not only because of its precision but also because of its relevance to certain problems of communication engineering and information theory. Statistical analysis is of great importance in the selection of vocabulary of a foreign language for teaching purposes.
Statistic analysis helps to determine-the frequency of occurrence of the words. Hence, it gives the opportunity to decide which meaning is primary (or secondary), and collocability of words. Statistical analysis should not be confused with purely numerical counts (the first involves the use of some mathematical formula).
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Lexicology as a Branch of Linguistics.
Characteristics of the Word as the Basic Unit of Language.
Words of Native Origin.
Borrowings in English.
Assimilation of borrowing.
Etymological Doublets.
International Words.
Influence of Borrowings.
Word-Structure in English. Classification of Morphemes. Morphemic types of Words.
Derivational Structure of the Word. Derivational Bases.
Prefixation in English. Classification of Prefixes.
Suffixation in English. Classification of Suffixes.
Conversion. Nature of Conversion. Synchronic and Diachronic Approaches to Conversion.
Patterns of conversion. Typical semantic relations in conversion.
Basic criteria of semantic derivation in conversion.
Word-composition. Specific feature of English compounds. Classification of compound words.
The meaning of compound words. Motivation.
Shortening of words and phrases. Classification of shortened words.
Minor types of word-formation.
Word-meaning. Referential, functional and operational approaches to word-meaning.
Types of meaning. Aspects of lexical meaning.
Change of meaning. Causes, nature and results of semantic change.
Polysemy in English. The semantic structure of polysemantic words.
Polysemy and context. Types of context. The meaning of the word and its usage.
Homonymy. Sources of homonymy. Classification of homonyms.
The problem of definition of synonyms.
The problem of classification of synonyms.
Patterns of synonymic sets. The synonymic dominant.
Antonyms in English. Classification of Antonyms.
Lexical and grammatical valency.
Structure and classification of free word-groups.
Meaning of word-groups.
Free word-groups versus phraseological units.
The problem of classification of phraseological units.
Structural types of phraseological units.
The main sources of phraseological units.
Proverbs, sayings, quotations.
Basic vocabulary.
Informal vocabulary.
Formal vocabulary.
American English. The main variants of the English language.
Social variation of the English language.
Classification and types of dictionaries.
Methods and procedures of lexicological research.
Procedures of morphemic analysis
Neologisms.
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